Vocabulary:Turn off the TV

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
a commercial	N. an advertisement on TV
a couch potato	N. a lazy person who sits around all day watching TV
a documentary	N. an educational TV program or movie usually describing nature or history
a drama	N. a serious TV program, movie or play that involves all the emotions
to kick back	V. to sit in a big comfortable chair or lie on a couch and relax
nope	this is an informal way of saying "no"
prime-time	A. between 8:00 PM and 11:00 PM every night This expression is used when referring to the television schedule.
prime time	N. the time between 8:00 PM and 11:00 PM every night The most popular shows are shown during prime time.
a sitcom	N. a half-hour comedy show
trials and tribulations	N. problems and difficulties of life
trivia	N. unimportant or useless information

Vocabulary:Presidential Elections

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
to abandon	V. to leave something behind; to give something up
to back	V. to give support to
a ballot	N. the piece of paper you write your vote on
to campaign	V. to advertise oneself (or someone else) as a candidate in an upcoming election; to work towards getting oneself (or someone else) elected
a campaign	N. 1) the process of trying to get oneself (or someone else) elected 2) an attempt or series of attempts to achieve a goal
to cast (a ballot)	V. to put (your ballot) in the ballot box
connections	N. social relationships which allow you certain opportunities; the people you know who can help you (get a job, raise money, gain power, etc.)
to debate	V. to have a structured, formal argument about a controversial topic
a debate	N. a structured, formal argument on a controversial topic
to elect	V. to choose someone to be a leader through a democratic vote
an election	N. the process of choosing a leader through a democratic vote
to run for president	V. to campaign to be president, to try to become president
to vote	V. to formally express one's choice in writing or by raising one's hand; to make one's choice in an election
a vote	N. the act of formally expressing one's choice in writing or by raising one's hand

Vocabulary:E-commerce

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
a cell phone	N. a wireless telephone based on cellular technology
to converge	V. to come together, to become one thing
a device	N. a small mechanical machine or instrument
to distribute	V. to divide among many people or places; to pass out, to hand out
distribution	N. the process of distributing among many people or places; the passing out or handing out of something
e-commerce	N. buying and selling things on the Internet
high bandwidth	N. fast connections (to the Internet)
high-bandwidth	A. related to fast connections (to the Internet)
a modem	N. a device which transfers information from your computer to a telephone or cable line
a network	N. an interconnected set of computers
portable	A. can be carried or moved
wireless communications	N. forms of electronic communication which do not use wires (such as cellular technology)

Vocabulary:Coffee Houses

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
to appeal to	V. to attract or interest (a certain group of people)
to blend	V. to combine, mix together
a blend	N. a combination, a mixture "Blend" is often used to refer to a special mixture of coffee beans.
to chat	V. to talk in a friendly, informal way; to discuss things for fun
a chat	N. an informal discussion
decaf	A. without caffeine, with reduced caffeine This is the short form of "decaffeinated."
a fad	N. a fashion, a trend, a short-term interest
to hang out	V. to spend time at a place (just relaxing or being with friends)
a hangout	N. a place where you spend much of your time
overpriced	A. costing too much money
to pop up	V. to suddenly appear
to sip	V. to slowly drink
trendy	A. 1) very fashionable, too fashionable 2) interested in extremely fashionable things This word is sometimes used in a negative way to express that something has become ridiculously fashionable.

Vocabulary:Hiking / Trekking

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
altitude sickness	N. an illness caused from being at high elevations
a canteen	N. a container used for carrying drinking water
dehydration	N. a physical condition caused by not drinking enough water; having the water removed from something
gear	N. equipment used for a particular purpose (camping, sports, fishing, etc.)
to hike	V. to go on a walk through nature for pleasure or exercise
a hike	N. a walk through nature for pleasure or exercise
a permit	N. written permission from a government office or other organization to do something
a porter	N. a person who carries gear and supplies on a trek
a ranger	N. a person who is employed to take care of a state park or a national park
a trail	N. a path (through forest, grass, sand) created when many people or animals walk back and forth over the same area Marked paths in natural parks and reserves are usually called trails.
to trek	V. to travel by foot over a great distance
a trek	N. a journey over a great distance We often use the word "trek" when a trip lasts several days and is quite challenging.

Vocabulary:Telecommunications

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
a carrier	N. a company which provides telephone service
competition	N. when several companies in an industry sell the same product or service resulting in lower prices and better customer support
deregulation	N. the act of taking a government-controlled industry and opening it up to private companies for the purpose of introducing competition
a fee	N. a charge for a professional service
to hook up	V. to make the electrical connections required for a machine or information service
to install	V. 1) to put in or add a piece of equipment or hardware 2) to add (new software or hardware) to a computer
a monopoly	N. when one company (or the government) has control over an industry and does not allow competition
to place a call	V. to make a telephone call
the suburbs	N. an area outside a city where people live rather than work
telecommunications	N. the industry or technology of sending and receiving messages by telephone (or other electronic devices)

Vocabulary:Humor

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
to crack up	V. to laugh uncontrollably, to laugh a lot
dry	A. not obvious, subtle (sense of humor)
to giggle	V. to laugh a little without opening your mouth very much
humorous	A. funny, amusing
an impression	N. the act of speaking or singing like a famous person
to kid	V. to make jokes, to joke with someone; to not be serious about something
a stand-up comedian	N. a person who entertains by telling humorous stories and jokes; a professional comedian who performs live
silly	A. funny in a slightly stupid way; funny in a way which is not really intelligent or sophisticated
twisted	A. 1) sick, disgusting, abnormal 2) using sick or disgusting things in a humorous way
witty	A. 1) funny in an intelligent way 2) full of fast, humorous responses

Vocabulary:Aerospace Industry

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
aerospace	N. 1) the science and technology of flying in the air and in outer space 2) the area including earth's atmosphere and outer space
aerospace	A. 1) related to the science and technology of flying in the air and in outer space 2) related to the area including earth's atmosphere and outer space
ambitious	A. having a strong desire for success
controversy	N. argument or debate about something
to coordinate	V. to bring people together so they can work more efficiently or effectively
to foster	V. to encourage (something) to grow or develop
a liaison	N. a person who works as a representative or connection between two or more companies, agencies, groups, countries, etc.
a mission	N. the purpose for which a person or thing is sent; a special military or technical project
a probe	N. a machine sent to explore or check an area
to probe	V. to search or explore with a probe
a stepping-stone	N. a way to get ahead, a way to advance
a venture	N. a project or course of action which involves risk or danger

Vocabulary:Santa Fe, New Mexico

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
to carve	V. to cut something into a special shape, to cut special designs or patterns into something
a craft	N. something handmade; a handmade piece of art
to devote	V. to focus something totally on a particular subject
to inhabit	V. to live in a place
locals	N. the people who have grown up in and continue to live in a particular area For example, if you are in Santa Fe and you refer to the locals, you are referring to the people who have grown up in and continue to live in Santa Fe.
Native American	A. the politically correct term for American Indian people
to resemble	V. to be like, to be similar to
a reservation	N. a piece of land given to an American Indian tribe
synonymous	A. being so strongly associated with something that it almost has the same meaning
a tribe	N. a distinct group of native people The Sioux, Apache, Maasai and Zulu are all famous tribes.

Vocabulary:Returns and Refunds

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
to carry	V. to offer a particular item for sale; to have an item in the store
a defect	N. a technical problem, a flaw, a mistake in construction
to exchange	V. to change one item for another
irritating	A. annoying, upsetting, bothersome
a model	N. a particular type of a mechanical product
a policy	N. a plan or course of action in business or government which is regularly followed
to refund	V. to return money which a person paid for a product or service
to ship	V. to send something large through the mail
store credit	N. a credit given to a customer which can be used to buy a new product When customers return a product to a store, sometimes instead of cash, they are given a store credit which allows them to buy another product of equal or lesser value.
a warranty	N. This is a guarantee given by a company which ensures that the product they sell is well made. If it breaks too soon, they agree to repair it or replace it free of charge.

Vocabulary:Entertaining Films

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
alternative	A. something which is done in a different way, not done in the normal way In the U.S., alternative films are usually artistic films or foreign language films.
artsy	A. extremely artistic, overly artistic, too artistic This often suggests that someone tried too hard to make something artistic.
entertaining	A. something which entertains; amusing and interesting
hilarious	A. something which is very funny; something which makes you laugh
intense	A. 1) containing strong emotions or feelings 2) extreme An intense film is one which emotionally drains you or makes you tired. Intense is not necessarily negative, it just means that a movie is not light or relaxing.
light	A. relaxing, amusing, not too intense This is the opposite of "intense."
mainstream	A. something which is usual, or commonly done Mainstream films are those which are usually high-budget, popular, and made for entertainment. "Mainstream" is the opposite of "alternative."
superficial	A. 1) not deep or profound; lacking real content 2) only on the surface
suspenseful	A. something which makes you keep guessing or makes you question how something will end
thought-provoking	A. something which

Vocabulary:Grocery Store Choice

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
to bill	V. to send a request for payment
a bill	N. a request for payment
to come to	V. to equal (an amount of money), to add up to, to total
to deduct	V. to take away, subtract (an amount of money)
to discount	V. to reduce or lower the cost of a product
a discount	N. a reduction in the cost of a product
discount	A. costing less money
to enter	V. 1) to put in information electronically 2) to write in information
to issue	V. to officially give out or print
to pack	V. 1) to put things into a grocery bag 2) to put things into a box to move 3) to put things into a suitcase to take with you
pressed for time	IDM. in a hurry
to swipe	V. to put a card through a computerized machine quickly so it can scan the information We usually use this word with ATM cards, credit cards, debit cards, identification cards, etc.
to verify	V. to make sure that something is true

Vocabulary:A Unique Circus

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
an act	N. 1) a short performance or skit in a circus 2) a part of a theater play
the audience	N. the people watching or listening to a performance
to celebrate	V. to recognize a special occasion or event with a fun activity or party
a costume	N. 1) clothes worn in a play, movie, circus, or other performance 2) clothes worn during a special holiday such as Halloween, Carnival or Mardi Gras
cruel	A. enjoying the pain and suffering of others, intentionally causing pain and suffering
to distinguish	V. 1) to set apart, to make the difference, to mark the difference 2) to see, hear, taste or smell the difference (between two or more things)
to juggle	V. 1) to keep many things in the air at the same time by throwing and catching them quickly 2) to do many jobs or activities at the same time This usually indicates that because you are doing many things at the same time, you are tired and overworked.
a magician	N. a person who performs magic tricks
mesmerizing	A. to be so beautiful or amazing that one becomes speechless and lost in a trance

Vocabulary:States and Territories

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
to be classified	V. to be put into a category, to be arranged in classes or groups
a district	N. an area of land or political division used for official purposes
geographical	A. relating to geography
geographically	ADV. done in a way which is related to geography
New England	N. a cultural region in the United States known for its small towns, traditional culture, countryside and colored leaves in autumn
a region	N. a large area or part
self-governing	A. independently run, not controlled from the outside
a state	N. a smaller, partly self-governing division of certain countries
to stretch	V. to spread out, extend
tied	A. 1) connected with rope or string 2) connected (historically, politically, economically, etc.)
a territory (territories)	N. an area of land ruled by a government

Vocabulary:Getting an Apartment

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
an application	N. a written request for an apartment, a job or entrance into a school or an organization
a credit report	N. a complete history of a person's paying habits In the United States, detailed credit histories are kept on all Americans describing how they pay their credit card bills, rent payments, electricity bills, car payments, telephone bills, etc. People are given grades called "credit ratings" for how well they pay off their debt. When a person moves into an apartment, landlords often request credit reports to find out if a person regularly pays on time.
to deposit	V. to put money in a bank
a deposit	N. 1) money which is put in a bank 2) money which is given to ensure that something will be returned or remain in good condition For example, if you want to rent a bicycle, you might have to leave a deposit to ensure that you bring the bike back.
to fill out	V. to complete (a form) by writing in the information
furnished	A. having furniture used with apartments or rental properties
a landlord	N. the man who runs an apartment building or property
a landlady	N. the woman who runs an apartment building or property
non-refundable	A. cannot be returned (money)
a reference	N. 1) a person who will provide information about your character or ability 2) a written letter which will provide information about your character or ability When looking for an apartment in the United States, it is common to provide a landlord with references who will say that you are a good person who will not cause problems.
to sublet	V. to rent your apartment temporarily to someone else
a tenant	N. a person who is renting a room or apartment

Vocabulary:Getting an Apartment

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
an application	N. a written request for an apartment, a job or entrance into a school or an organization
a credit report	N. a complete history of a person's paying habits In the United States, detailed credit histories are kept on all Americans describing how they pay their credit card bills, rent payments, electricity bills, car payments, telephone bills, etc. People are given grades called "credit ratings" for how well they pay off their debt. When a person moves into an apartment, landlords often request credit reports to find out if a person regularly pays on time.
to deposit	V. to put money in a bank
a deposit	N. 1) money which is put in a bank 2) money which is given to ensure that something will be returned or remain in good condition For example, if you want to rent a bicycle, you might have to leave a deposit to ensure that you bring the bike back.
to fill out	V. to complete (a form) by writing in the information
furnished	A. having furniture used with apartments or rental properties
a landlord	N. the man who runs an apartment building or property
a landlady	N. the woman who runs an apartment building or property
non-refundable	A. cannot be returned (money)
a reference	N. 1) a person who will provide information about your character or ability 2) a written letter which will provide information about your character or ability When looking for an apartment in the United States, it is common to provide a landlord with references who will say that you are a good person who will not cause problems.
to sublet	V. to rent your apartment temporarily to someone else
a tenant	N. a person who is renting a room or apartment

Vocabulary:Changing Job

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
to be bought out	V. to be purchased, taken over by another company
to be laid off	V. to lose your job because the company wants to reduce the number of employees
competitive	A. 1) liking competition, always competing with other people used to describe personalities 2) having intense competition used to describe markets, industries or businesses
dedicated	A. 1) very loyal 2) working hard for a person, company or idea
to downsize	V. to reduce the number of employees in a company in order to lower costs
to get rid of	V. to throw away, remove, eliminate something or someone
outdated	A. too old, antiquated
to retrain	V. to reeducate someone for a job, train again
to streamline	V. 1) to form into a smooth shape which can easily move through air or water 2) to improve the performance of something 3) to simplify a process
to update	V. to make more modern
an update	N. the latest information or news

Vocabulary:Ordering in a Restaurant

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
an appetizer	N. a small dish at the beginning of a meal, a starter
a chef	N. a skilled cook
chives	N. a small onion-like herb commonly added to potatoes
chowder	N. a kind of soup usually containing fish and vegetables
to come with	V. to include (in a meal)
dressing	N. a sauce added to salads
an entree	N. a main dish
a menu	N. a list of dishes available in a restaurant
salmon	N. a large fish with silvery skin and pinkish meat
rare	A. very pink adjective used to describe a way of cooking meat
medium-rare	A. slightly pink adjective used to describe a way of cooking meat
medium	A. normally cooked adjective used to describe a way of cooking meat
well-done	A. fully cooked adjective used to describe a way of cooking meat

Vocabulary:Internet

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
a browser	N. a program used to view the Internet Microsoft Internet Explorer and Firefox are examples of popular Internet browsers.
to click	V. 1) to press the button on a computer mouse 2) to make a small, sharp sound
a click	N. 1) the pressing of the mouse button 2) a small, sharp sound
content	N. subject matter; the main idea of a book, a paper or a web page
to copyright	V. to legally protect content with a copyright
a copyright	N. the right in law to be the only producer, seller or distributor of a book, a play or a web page
to design	V. to artistically arrange the shape or layout of something
a design	N. 1) the artistic shape or layout of something 2) an architectural or technical plan for something
to format	V. to determine the size, shape and form of a written document
a format	N. the size, shape and form of a written document
infringement	N. breaking a law or rule, disregarding a legal protection
Internet (Net)	N. a series of interconnected computers and databases around the world
to lay out	V. to design the technical arrangement of a web page, building, garden, etc.
a layout	N. the technical arrangement of a web page, building, garden, etc.
World Wide Web (Web)	N. a series of commercial, educational and governmental web pages on the Internet

Vocabulary:Higher Education

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
apprenticeship	N. training in an art or a trade This word is also sometimes used to describe educational training programs, common in Europe and much of the world, in which young people learn their profession through on-the-job training in companies and organizations. Often this includes one or two days a week of in-class training. This kind of education is uncommon in the United States.
to be funded	V. to be paid for, to supply the money for
a degree	N. a title given by a university
facilities	N. services or conveniences
to major	V. to specialize in (a particular academic field)
a major	N. the main field of study in which a university student specializes
to minor	V. to have a secondary specialization in (a particular academic field)
a minor	N. the secondary field of study in which a student specializes
to stand for	V. to be the short form of, to represent, to mean
terminology	N. specialized words or expressions used in a particular field, activity, job, science, etc.
to transfer	V. 1) to change schools 2) to move from one place to another said of people or things
B.A.	N. Bachelor of Arts, an undergraduate degree in a humanities-related subject
B.S.	N. Bachelor of Science, an undergraduate degree in a science-related subject
master's	N. the graduate degree after a bachelor's and before a Ph.D. There are also different kinds of master's, including M.A. (Master of Arts), M.S. (Master of Science), M.B.A. (Master in Business Administration), etc.
Ph.D.	N. doctorate, highest graduate degree Although Ph.D. stands for Doctor of Philosophy, it is commonly used to refer to a doctorate in any field.

Vocabulary:Unique Personalities

A. = Adjective ADV. = Adverb IDM. = Idiom N. = Noun V. = Verb
cynical	A. seeing little or no good in other people, believing that people do good things for bad reasons
eccentric	A. having strange, unusual or abnormal habits or tastes This term is less insulting than strange, weird or bizarre.
egotistical	A. thinking too highly of oneself, considering oneself better than others
imaginative	A. creative, having much imagination
indecisive	A. unable to decide quickly, not knowing what choice to make
picky	A. hard to please, too careful in choosing something
sensible	A. practical, reasonable, something that makes sense
sensitive	A. easily feels emotion, easily hurt emotionally can be positive or negative
sophisticated	A. representing high culture, very experienced in life
thoughtful	A. often doing things to make other people feel good

American and English Today

THE TWO VOCABULARIES (article from Bartleby)

By way of preliminary to an examination of the American of today, here is a list of terms in everyday use that differ in American and English: American English ash-can dust-bin ash-cart dust-cart ashman dustman backyard garden baggage luggage baggage-car luggage-van ballast (railroad) metal barbershop barber’s-shop bath-robe dressing-gown bath-tub bath beet beet-root bid (noun) tender bill-board hoarding boarder paying-guest boardwalk (seaside) promenade boot high-boot brakeman brakesman bumper (car) buffer bureau chest of drawers calendar (court) cause-list campaign (political) canvass can (noun) tin candy sweets cane stick canned-goods tinned-goods car (railroad) carriage, van or waggon checkers (game) draughts chicken-yard fowl-run chief-clerk head-clerk chief-of-police chief-constable city-editor chief-reporter city-ordinance by-law clipping (newspaper) cutting closed-season close-season coal coals coal-oil paraffin collar-button stud commission-merchant factor, or commission-agent commutation-ticket season-ticket conductor (of a train) guard corn maize, or Indian corn corner (of a street) crossing corn-meal Indian meal counterfeiter coiner cow-catcher plough cracker biscuit crazy-bone funny-bone cross-tie sleeper crystal (watch) watch-glass department-store stores derby (hat) bowler dime-novel penny-dreadful district (political) division druggist chemist drug-store chemist’s shop drummer bagman dry-goods-store draper’s-shop editorial (noun) leader, or leading-article elevator lift elevator-boy lift-man enlisted-man private-soldier excursionist tripper ferns bracken filing-cabinet nest-of-drawers fire-department fire-brigade fish-dealer fishmonger floor-walker shop-walker fraternal-order friendly-society freight goods freight-agent goods-manager freight-car goods-waggon freight-elevator hoist frog (railway) crossing-plate garters (men’s) sock-suspenders gasoline petrol grade (railroad) gradient grain corn grain-broker corn-factor groceries stores hardware-dealer ironmonger headliner topliner hod-carrier hodman hog-pen piggery hood (automobile) bonnet hospital (private) nursing-home huckster coster (monger) hunting shooting Indian Red Indian Indian Summer St. Martin’s Summer instalment-business credit-trade instalment-plan hire-purchase plan internal-revenue inland-revenue janitor caretaker, or porter laborer navvy legal-holiday bank-holiday letter-box pillar-box letter-carrier postman locomotive engineer engine-driver long-distance-call trunk-call lumber deals lumber-yard timber-yard mad angry mantelpiece chimney-piece Methodist Wesleyan molasses treacle monkey-wrench spanner moving-picture-theatre cinema, or picture-palace necktie tie news-dealer news-agent newspaper-man pressman, or journalist notions small-wares oatmeal porridge officeholder public-servant orchestra (seats in a theatre) stalls outbuildings (farm) offices overcoat great-coat package parcel parlor drawing-room parlor-car saloon-carriage patrolman (police) constable pay-day wage-day peanut monkey-nut pen-point nib period (punctuation) full-stop pitcher jug plant (industrial) works poorhouse workhouse post-paid post-free potpie pie prepaid carriage-paid press (printing) machine program (of a meeting) agenda public-school board-school quotation-marks inverted-commas railroad railway 1 railroad-man railway-servant rails line rare (of meat) underdone receipts (in business) takings Rhine-wine Hock road-bed (railroad) permanent-way road-repairer road-mender roast joint roll (of films) spool roll-call division rooster cock round-trip-ticket return-ticket saleswoman shop-assistant saloon public-house scarf-pin tie-pin scow lighter sewerage drains shirtwaist blouse shoe boot shoemaker bootmaker shoe-shine boot-polish shoestring bootlace shoe-tree boot-tree sick ill sidewalk footpath, or pavement silver (collectively) plate sled sledge sleigh sledge soft-drinks minerals smoking-room smoke-room spigot (or faucet) tap sponge (surgical) tap stem-winder keyless-watch stockholder shareholder stocks shares store-fixtures shop-fittings street-cleaner crossing-sweeper street-railway tramway subway tube, or underground suspenders (men’s) braces sweater jersey switch (noun, railway) points switch (verb, railway) shunt taxes (municipal) rates taxpayer (local) ratepayer tenderloin (of beef) under-cut, or fillet ten-pins nine-pins terminal (railroad) terminus thumb-tack drawing-office ticket-office booking-office tinner tinker tin-roof leads track (railroad) line trained-nurse hospital-nurse transom (of door) fanlight trolley-car tramcar truck (vehicle) lorry truck (of a railroad car) bogie typewriter (operator) typist typhoid-fever enteric undershirt vest vaudeville-theatre music-hall vest waistcoat warden (of a prison) governor warehouse stores wash-rag face-cloth wash-stand wash-hand-stand waste-basket waste-paper-basket whippletree splinter-bar witness-stand witness-box

Abbreviate the following:

Titles before names:

Mrs., Mr., Ms., Prof., Dr., Gen., Rep., Sen., St. (for Saint)

Notice that Miss is not an abbreviation, so we don't put a period after it. Ms. is not an abbreviation, either, but we do use a period after it — probably to keep it consistent with Mr. and Mrs.

The plural of Mr. is Messrs. (We invited Messrs. Carter, Lincoln, and Ford.) The plural of Dr. is Drs. (We consulted Drs. Carter, Lincoln, and Ford.) The plural of Mrs. is Mmes or Mmes. (with or without the period).

In most formal prose, we do not use titles, abbreviated or otherwise, with individuals. Ms. Emily Dickinson is simply Emily Dickinson, and after the first use of her full name, Dickinson will do (unless we need Emily to avoid confusion with other Dickinsons).

The abbreviations Rev. and Hon. (for Reverend and Honorable) are not, strictly speaking, titles; they are adjectives. In informal language or when we're trying to save space or make a list, we can write Rev. Alan B. Darling and Hon. Francisco Gonzales. In formal text, we would write "the Reverend Alan B. Darling" and "the Honorable Francisco Gonzales" (i.e., it's not a good idea to abbreviate either Reverend or Honorable when these words are preceded by "the"). Incidentally, we cannot say "We invited the reverend to dinner" and only a cad would invite "the rev."

Titles after names:

Sr., Jr., Ph.D., M.D., B.A., M.A., D.D.S.

These are standard abbreviations, with periods. The APA Publication Manual recommends not using periods with degrees; other reference manuals do recommend using periods, so use your own judgment on this issue. All sources advise against using titles before and after a name at the same time (i.e., she can be Dr. Juanita Espinoza or Juanita Espinoza, PhD, but she cannot be Dr. Juanita Espinoza, PhD). And we do not abbreviate a title that isn't attached to a name: "We went to see the doctor (not dr.) yesterday."

The Chicago Manual of Style recommends not using a comma to separate the Jr./Sr./III from the last name, but you should follow the preferences of the indivdual if you know those preferences. If you list a "junior" with his spouse, the "Jr." can go after both names, as in "Mr. and Mrs. Arthur C. Banks Jr." or "Mr. Arthur C. Banks Jr. and Gloria Banks — but not Arthur C. and Gloria Banks Jr. You should avoid using a "Jr." or "Sr." when you have only the last name — Mr. Banks Jr.

Have you ever run across an acronym or abbreviation and not known what it means? Try using the Acronym Finder. Just type in the letters and click on Search. Out of a database of over 190,000 abbreviations and acronyms, the Finder will probably discover what you're looking for.

Names of

• familiar institutions — UConn, MIT, UCLA, CIA, FBI, NATO
• countries — U.S.A., U.K.
• corporations — IBM, CBS, NPR, CNN, ITT
• famous people — LBJ, FDR, JFK, MLK
• very familiar objects — TV, VCR, CD-ROM.

Notice that U.S.A. can also be written USA, but U.S. is better with the periods. Also, we can use U.S. as a modifier (the U.S. policy on immigration) but not as a noun (He left the U.S. U.S.A.).

Terms of mathematical units: 15 in., 15 ft, 15 kg, 15 m, 15 lb

Generally, you would use these abbreviations only in technical writing. There is a space between the number and the abbreviation. Notice that we do not put an s after such abbreviations even when the plural is indicated. Also, we do not use a period with such abbreviations except for in. when it might be confused with the preposition in.

When the term of measurement is used as a modifier, we put a hyphen between the number and the term of measurement: a 15-ft board, a 6-lb line, etc.

Long, common phrases, such as IQ (Intelligence Quotient), rpm (revolutions per minute), mph (miles per hour), and mpg (miles per gallon).
Such abbreviations are acceptable even in formal academic text and may be used without periods.

Words used with numbers: He left at 2:00 a.m. She was born in 1520 B.C.

Either lower or upper case letters can be used with A.M., a.m., P.M., p.m. The abbreviation B.C. (before Christ) is used after the date; A.D. (anno domini, "in the year of the Lord") appears before the date. The abbreviations B.C. and A.D. are sometimes replaced with B.C.E. (before the common era) and C.E. (common era), both used after the date (although one must add that those abbreviations are neither widely used nor commonly understood). Sometimes you will see 790 BC and AD 78 written without periods and written in SMALL CAPS. Note that many style books are now recommending SMALL CAPS for all appearances of acronyms, such as NAACP or NCAA. The effect of this practice is to allow the acronym to blend more smoothly with the rest of the text.

It is considered bad form to use these abbreviations without a specific number attached to them: "We'll do this in the a.m." or "We'll do this tomorrow a.m."

Common Latin terms: etc. (et cetera — and so forth), i.e. (id est — that is), e.g. (exempli gratia — for example), et al. (et alii — and others).

The abbreviation i.e. (i.e., that is) is often confused with other abbreviations (e.g., e.g.). The i.e. generally is used to introduce matter that is explanatory as opposed to being the name of an example or list of examples. If you can say for example as a substitute for the abbreviation, you want to use e.g., not i.e. Do not italicize or underline these abbreviations. Most sources recommend avoiding the use of Latin abbreviations except within parenthetical notes and some sources say not to use Latin abbreviations at all (use the English terms instead) except within citations or reference lists. Good advice. The Chicago Manual of Style recommends using a comma after i.e. or e.g. in order to set off those abbreviations as introductory modifiers. Other resources say not to bother with the comma, but the comma makes good sense.

Except in the business of formally citing material you've used in research, it's a good idea not to use et al. when you mean "and others." And don't use etc. as a lazy person's way of getting out of work. Spell out the word versus unless you're reporting game scores, when you would use vs.; when you're citing legal documents, use the abbreviation v.

Names of states and territories in references and addresses, but not in normal text. Abbreviations accepted by the U.S. Postal Service (including abbreviations for words like Boulevard and Alley) are listed online. Do not use state abbreviations simply to save time or space except in an address on an envelope or list. We do not use periods with state abbreviations: CT, NY, NJ. We use D.C. after the name of the city within the District of Columbia: Washington, D.C.; the APA Manual does not use periods with DC. The U.S. postal service, incidentally, does not insert a comma between the city and the abbreviated state name: Hartford CT, Portland OR — at least not in the addresses on envelopes.

Abbreviate "Saint" in U.S. place names, as in St. Louis and St. Petersburg, Florida, and the St. Lawrence River. For the same word in other countries, you might have to consult a good dictionary (one that contains place names): St./Saint Martin's in the Fields, Saint Moritz, Saint Lucia, Mont-Saint-Michel, Saint Petersburg (Russia). When the word Saint is used to refer to a holy person, spell out the word — Saint Theresa, Saint Francis of Assisi. If an institution is named after a saint, spell out the word Saint unless you have some reason to save space — Saint Francis Hospital, Saint Joseph College, Saint Joseph's University. It is wise, as always, to consult the actual institution. Colleges, universities, and hospitals named after Saint Mary are about evenly divided between St. and Saint, but in formal situations, Saint seems to be favored more frequently.

Don't abbreviate the following:

(In formal academic prose it is considered bad form to abbreviate words simply to save space, time, or energy.)

• Words such as through (thru), night (nite).
• Days of the week or months of the year (in the normal flow of text).
• Words at the beginning of a sentence.
• People's names such as Chas. (for Charles) or Jas. (for James), unless those abbreviations have come to be accepted as nicknames for those particular individuals.
• States' names such as Mass. (for Massachusetts) or Conn. (for Connecticut). When appropriate (as in the addresses for envelopes), use the U.S. postal service's approved two-letter abbreviations: MA, CT (without periods).
• Courses such as econ (for economics) or poli sci (for political science).

Spacing and Periods

Abbreviations of units of measure are written without periods (with the exception of "in" when it could be confused with the preposition). We use periods for most lower-case abbreviations such as e.g. and i.e. and c.o.d. For very common abbreviations, leave out the periods, as in rpm and mph. When an abbreviation with a period ends a sentence, that period will suffice to end the sentence: He lives in Washington, D.C. Suffixes for people's names require periods: Joe Smith Jr. lives in Erie. In formal text it is not a good idea to abbreviate military titles — Lieutenant Colonel Chester Piascyk — but in informal text Lt. Col. Chester Piascyk would be acceptable. (Note the space after "Lt.") Academic degrees can be written with periods or not, but don't insert spaces — Ph.D. or PhD, M.B.A. or MBA — within the degree.

People's initials are usually followed by a period and a space — W. E. B. DuBois — but you need to be careful that a line-break doesn't come in the middle of someone's initials. (You can impose what is called a "forced space" or "non-breaking space" by holding down the option key while you hit the space bar.) You will find exceptions to this rule in the way that some companies write their name: JCPenney (no spaces or periods), L.L. Bean (no space in the initials), etc. In normal text, writers can safely ignore corporate aberrations in spacing and capitalization. (Some editors write Harry S Truman without a period after the "S," because the initial didn't really stand for anything, but the Truman Presidential Museum and Library contends that that practice is silly. Still, you will often find Truman's name written sans period in highly regarded places.) When a person's initials stand alone — either as a nickname, "Come here, JT!" — or as a common shortcut — JFK (for John Fitzgerald Kennedy) or LBJ (for Lyndon Baines Johnson) — type them without spaces or periods. Professional designations such as CPA (Certified Public Accountant) or CLU (Certified Life Underwriter) are separated from the last name with a comma and are written without spaces or periods, as in Bertha Bigknot, CPA, unless the designation is accompanied by an academic degree, as in Foxy Reynard, Ph.D., C.L.U.

Acronyms

There is a difference between acronyms and abbreviations. An acronym is usually formed by taking the first initials of a phrase or compounded-word and using those initials to form a word that stands for something. Thus NATO, which we pronounce NATOH, is an acronym for North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and LASER (which we pronounce "lazer"), is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. FBI, then, is not really an acronym for the Federal Bureau of Investigation; it is an abbreviation. AIDS is an acronym; HIV is an abbreviation. URL is an abbreviation for Uniform Resource Locator (World Wide Web address), but many people pronounce it as "Earl," making it a true acronym, and others insist on pronouncing it as three separate letters, "U * R * L," thus making it an abbreviation. The jury is still out. (I vote for Uncle Earl.)

It appears that there are no hard and fast rules for using periods in either acronyms or abbreviations. More and more, newspapers and journals seem to drop the periods: NAACP, NCAA, etc. Consistency, obviously, is important.

Using articles with abbreviations and acronyms: One of the most often asked questions about grammar has to do with the choice of articles — a, an, the — to precede an abbreviation or acronym. Do we say an FBI agent or a FBI agent? Although "F" is obviously a consonant and we would precede any word that begins with "F" with "a," we precede FBI with "an" because the first sound we make when we say FBI is not an "f-sound," it is an "eff-sound." Thus we say we're going to a PTO meeting where an NCO will address us. We say we saw a UFO because, although the abbreviation begins with a 'U," we pronounce the "U" as if it were spelled "yoo." Whether we say an URL or a URL depends on whether we pronounce it as "earl" or as "u*r*l."

Definitions of Basic Sentence Part

absolute phrases || adjectives || adverbs || articles || conjunctions || direct and indirect objects || interjections || modifiers || nouns || predicates || prepositions || pronouns || subjects || verbals || verbs

The hyperlinks above will take you to separate pages.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

The eight parts of speech — verbs, nouns, pronouns, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections — are defined on the pages hyperlinked below. (Some authorities would not list interjections, but would list determiners or articles, instead.) In addition, you can use the Powerpoint presentation on the Parts of Speech. Visit the page on Powerpoint for further information. The terms below — and over 300 others — are also listed in the Guide's INDEX.

Here's a little rhyme — by David B. Tower & Benjamin F. Tweed —that teachers used in days gone by to help students learn the parts of speech. (We include it here in response to popular demand. Why the song leaves out pronouns is a mystery. A writer from Richland, Washington, suggests "A PRONOUN replaces any noun: / he, she, it, and you are found. ) It has been set to music, but we'll leave that up to you to discover or create for yourself:

Three little words you often see
Are ARTICLES: a, an, and the.

A NOUN's the name of anything,
As: school or garden, toy, or swing.

ADJECTIVES tell the kind of noun,
As: great, small, pretty, white, or brown.

VERBS tell of something being done:
To read, write, count, sing, jump, or run.

How things are done the ADVERBS tell,
As: slowly, quickly, badly, well.

CONJUNCTIONS join the words together,
As: men and women, wind or weather.

The PREPOSITION stands before
A noun as: in or through a door.

The INTERJECTION shows surprise
As: Oh, how pretty! Ah! how wise!

The whole are called the PARTS of SPEECH,
Which reading, writing, speaking teach.

Sentence Parts: Function and Usage Notes
Absolute Phrases	Adjectives	Adverbs	Determiners/ Articles
Clauses	Complements	Coordinated Adjectives	Conjunctions
Direct and Indirect Objects	Interjections	Nouns	Phrases
Predicates	Prepositions	Pronouns	Subjects
Verbs and Verbals (Infinitives, Participles, Gerunds)

Prepositions:Locator in Time and Place

A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to something else. Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words, but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition). This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or under what conditions something happened.

Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while talking about it.

You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk, by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.

All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a bad mood [another adverbial construction].

Those words in bold blue font are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things besides locate in space or time — "My brother is like my father." "Everyone in the class except me got the answer." — but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun — "During a church service is not a good time to discuss picnic plans" or "In the South Pacific is where I long to be" — but this is seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing.

Click HERE for a list of common prepositions that will be easy to print out.

You may have learned that ending a sentence with a preposition is a serious breach of grammatical etiquette. It doesn't take a grammarian to spot a sentence-ending preposition, so this is an easy rule to get caught up on (!). Although it is often easy to remedy the offending preposition, sometimes it isn't, and repair efforts sometimes result in a clumsy sentence. "Indicate the book you are quoting from" is not greatly improved with "Indicate from which book you are quoting." Based on shaky historical precedent, the rule itself is a latecomer to the rules of writing. Those who dislike the rule are fond of recalling Churchill's rejoinder: "That is nonsense up with which I shall not put." We should also remember the child's complaint: "What did you bring that book that I don't like to be read to out of up for?"

Is it any wonder that prepositions create such troubles for students for whom English is a second language? We say we are at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the hospital. We lie in bed but on the couch. We watch a film at the theater but on television. For native speakers, these little words present little difficulty, but try to learn another language, any other language, and you will quickly discover that prepositions are troublesome wherever you live and learn. This page contains some interesting (sometimes troublesome) prepositions with brief usage notes. To address all the potential difficulties with prepositions in idiomatic usage would require volumes, and the only way English language learners can begin to master the intricacies of preposition usage is through practice and paying close attention to speech and the written word. Keeping a good dictionary close at hand (to hand?) is an important first step.

Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in

We use at to designate specific times.
The train is due at 12:15 p.m.

We use on to designate days and dates.
My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.

We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.

Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in

We use at for specific addresses.
Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.
Her house is on Boretz Road.

And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Windham County is in Connecticut.

Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition
IN (the) bed* the bedroom the car (the) class* the library* school*	AT class* home the library* the office school* work	ON the bed* the ceiling the floor the horse the plane the train	NO PREPOSITION downstairs downtown inside outside upstairs uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.

Prepositions of Movement: to
and No Preposition

We use to in order to express movement toward a place.
They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.

Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.

With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.

Prepositions of Time: for and since

We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.

We use since with a specific date or time.
He's worked here since 1970.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.

Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS
approval of awareness of belief in concern for confusion about desire for	fondness for grasp of hatred of hope for interest in love of	need for participation in reason for respect for success in understanding of

ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS
afraid of angry at aware of capable of careless about familiar with	fond of happy about interested in jealous of made of married to	proud of similar to sorry for sure of tired of worried about

VERBS and PREPOSITIONS
apologize for ask about ask for belong to bring up care for find out	give up grow up look for look forward to look up make up pay for	prepare for study for talk about think about trust in work for worry about

A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a particle. Please refer to the brief section we have prepared on phrasal verbs for an explanation.

Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions

• agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
• argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
• compare to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes similarities)
• correspond to a thing, with a person
• differ from an unlike thing, with a person
• live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people

Unnecessary Prepositions

In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not necessary. It would be a good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.

• She met up with the new coach in the hallway.
• The book fell off of the desk.
• He threw the book out of the window.
• She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"]
• Where did they go to?
• Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead]
• Where is your college at?

Prepositions in Parallel Form

(Click HERE for a definition and discussion of parallelism.) When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be idiomatically correct, the preposition does not have to be used twice.
You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter.
The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.

However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be careful not to omit one of them.
The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie.
It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he played.
He was fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.

Verbs and Verbals

auxiliary || gerunds || infinitives || irregular || linking || mood || auxiliary || participles || phrasal || causative || factitive ||sequence || tense

There are separate sections on

• The Passive Voice
• Progressive, Stative, and Dynamic Verbs and
• Conditional Verb Forms
• The "To Be" Verb

Definitions

Verbs carry the idea of being or action in the sentence.

• I am a student.
• The students passed all their courses.

As we will see on this page, verbs are classified in many ways. First, some verbs require an object to complete their meaning: "She gave _____ ?" Gave what? She gave money to the church. These verbs are called transitive. Verbs that are intransitive do not require objects: "The building collapsed." In English, you cannot tell the difference between a transitive and intransitive verb by its form; you have to see how the verb is functioning within the sentence. In fact, a verb can be both transitive and intransitive: "The monster collapsed the building by sitting on it."

Although you will seldom hear the term, a ditransitive verb — such as cause or give — is one that can take a direct object and an indirect object at the same time: "That horrid music gave me a headache." Ditransitive verbs are slightly different, then, from factitive verbs (see below), in that the latter take two objects.

Verbs are also classified as either finite or non-finite. A finite verb makes an assertion or expresses a state of being and can stand by itself as the main verb of a sentence.

• The truck demolished the restaurant.
• The leaves were yellow and sickly.

Non-finite verbs (think "unfinished") cannot, by themselves, be main verbs:

• The broken window . . .
• The wheezing gentleman . . .

Another, more useful term for non-finite verb is verbal. In this section, we discuss various verbal forms: infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

For WebCT Users

The "-s" Problem Icon means that the verb requires an -s ending because it's a third-person (he/she/it) verb in the present tense. See the Table of Verb Tenses for help in identifying present tenses requiring the -s.

The "-ed" Problem Icon probably means that the verb requires an -ed ending because it's in the past tense or that an -ed ending has been used inappropriately. The -ed ending is particularly problematic when it occurs just before a "d" or "t" sound as in "We are used to doing things the way we're supposed to: like in the old-fashioned days." See the Table of Verb Tenses for help in identifying past tenses requiring the -ed.

The "Verb" Problem Icon probably means that the verb tenses in this sentence are inconsistent or incorrect. See the section on Sequencing for help in using the correct sequence of verb tenses. See the section on Consistency for help in maintaining a proper consistency in verb tense.

Four Verb Forms

The inflections (endings) of English verb forms are not difficult to remember. There are only four basic forms. Instead of forming complex tense forms with endings, English uses auxiliary verb forms. English does not even have a proper ending for future forms; instead, we use auxiliaries such as "I am going to read this afternoon." or "I will read." or even "I am reading this book tomorrow." It would be useful, however, to learn these four basic forms of verb construction.

Name of verb	Base form	Past form	Present participle	Past participle
to work	I can work. I work.	I worked.	I am working.	I have worked.
to write	I can write. I write.	I wrote.	I am writing.	I have written.

Linking Verbs

A linking verb connects a subject and its complement. Sometimes called copulas, linking verbs are often forms of the verb to be, but are sometimes verbs related to the five senses (look, sound, smell, feel, taste) and sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of being (appear, seem, become, grow, turn, prove, remain). What follows the linking verb will be either a noun complement or an adjective complement:

• Those people are all professors.
• Those professors are brilliant.
• This room smells bad.
• I feel great.
• A victory today seems unlikely.

A handful of verbs that reflect a change in state of being are sometimes called resulting copulas. They, too, link a subject to a predicate adjective:

• His face turned purple.
• She became older.
• The dogs ran wild.
• The milk has gone sour.
• The crowd grew ugly.

"This is he."

A Frequently Asked Question about linking verbs concerns the correct response when you pick up the phone and someone asks for you. One correct response would be "This is he [she]." The predicate following the linking verb should be in the nominative (subject) form — definitely not "This is him." If "This is he" sounds stuffy to you, try using "Speaking," instead, or "This is Fred," substituting your own name for Fred's — unless it's a bill collector or telemarketer calling, in which case "This is Fred" is a good response for everyone except people named Fred.

Active and Passive Voice

There is now a separate section dealing with issues raised by a verb's VOICE (active/passive).

Mood

Mood in verbs refers to one of three attitudes that a writer or speaker has to what is being written or spoken. The indicative mood, which describes most sentences on this page, is used to make a statement or ask a question. The imperative mood is used when we're feeling sort of bossish and want to give a directive, strong suggestion, or order:

• Get your homework done before you watch television tonight.
• Please include cash payment with your order form.
• Get out of town!

Notice that there is no subject in these imperative sentences. The pronoun you (singular or plural, depending on context) is the "understood subject" in imperative sentences. Virtually all imperative sentences, then, have a second person (singular or plural) subject. The sole exception is the first person construction, which includes an objective form as subject: "Let's (or Let us) work on these things together."

The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses that do the following: 1) express a wish; 2) begin with if and express a condition that does not exist (is contrary to fact); 3) begin with as if and as though when such clauses describe a speculation or condition contrary to fact; and 4) begin with that and express a demand, requirement, request, or suggestion. A new section on the uses of the Conditional should help you understand the subjunctive.

• She wishes her boyfriend were here.
• If Juan were more aggressive, he'd be a better hockey player.
• We would have passed if we had studied harder.
• He acted as if he were guilty.
• I requested that he be present at the hearing.

The subjunctive is not as important a mood in English as it is in other languages, like French and Spanish, which happen to be more subtle and discriminating in hypothetical, doubtful, or wishful expressions. Many situations which would require the subjunctive in other languages are satisfied by using one of several auxiliary verbs in English.

The New York Public Library's Writer's Guide to Style and Usage has this important note on the subjunctive: "The words if, as if, or as though do not always signal the subjunctive mood. If the information in such a clause points out a condition that is or was probable or likely, the verb should be in the indicative mood. The indicative tells the reader that the information in the dependent clause could possibly be true" (155). Cited with permission.

The present tense of the subjunctive uses only the base form of the verb.

• He demanded that his students use two-inch margins.
• She suggested that we be on time tomorrow.

The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative except (unfortunately) for the verb to be, which uses were regardless of the number of the subject.

• If I were seven feet tall, I'd be a great basketball player.
• He wishes he were a better student.
• If you were rich, we wouldn't be in this mess.
• If they were faster, we could have won that race.